Cephalotoxin

DWhatley

Kraken
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Chemical Tools of Octopus maya during Crab Predation Are Also Active on Conspecifics
Dawrin Pech-Puch,Honorio Cruz-López,Cindy Canche-Ek,Gabriela Campos-Espinosa,Elpidio García,
Maite Mascaro,Carlos Rosas,Daniel Chávez-Velasco,Sergio Rodríguez-Morales 2016 (full article)

Abstract
Octopus maya is a major socio-economic resource from the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico. In this study we report for the first time the chemical composition of the saliva of O. maya and its effect on natural prey, i.e. the blue crab (Callinectes sapidus), the crown conch snail (Melongena corona bispinosa), as well as conspecifics. Salivary posterior glands were collected from octopus caught by local fishers and extracted with water; this extract paralyzed and predigested crabs when it was injected into the third pereiopod. The water extract was fractionated by membrane ultrafiltration with a molecular weight cut-off of 3kDa leading to a metabolic phase (>3kDa) and a neurotoxic fraction (<3kDa). The neurotoxic fraction injected in the crabs caused paralysis and postural changes. Crabs recovered to their initial condition within two hours, which suggests that the effects of the neurotoxic fraction were reversible. The neurotoxic fraction was also active on O. maya conspecifics, partly paralyzing and sedating them; this suggests that octopus saliva might be used among conspecifics for defense and for reduction of competition. Bioguided separation of the neurotoxic fraction by chromatography led to a paralysis fraction and a relaxing fraction. The paralyzing activity of the saliva was exerted by amino acids, while the relaxing activity was due to the presence of serotonin. Prey-handling studies revealed that O. maya punctures the eye or arthrodial membrane when predating blue crabs and uses the radula to bore through crown conch shells; these differing strategies may help O. maya to reduce the time needed to handle its prey.
 
Combined transcriptomic and proteomic analysis of the posterior salivary gland from the southern blue-ringed octopus and the southern sand octopus
Brooke Lauren Whitelaw, Jan M Strugnell, Pierre Faou, Rute R da Fonseca, Nathan Hall, Mark Norman, Julian Finn, Ira Robin Cooke 2016 (Journal of Proteome research subscription)

This study provides comprehensive proteomic profiles from the venom producing posterior salivary glands of octopus (superorder Octopodiformes) species. A combined transcriptomic and proteomic approach was used to identify 1,703 proteins from the posterior salivary gland of the southern blue-ringed octopus, Hapalochlaena maculosa and 1,300 proteins from the posterior salivary gland of the southern sand octopus, Octopus kaurna. The two proteomes were broadly similar, clustering of proteins into orthogroups revealed 937 that were shared between species. Serine proteases were particularly diverse and abundant in both species. Other abundant proteins included a large number of secreted proteins many of which had no known conserved domains, or homology to proteins with known function. Based on homology to known venom proteins, 23 putative toxins were identified in H. maculosa and 24 in O. kaurna. These toxins span nine protein families: CAP (cysteine rich secretory proteins, antigen 5, parthenogenesis related), chitinase, carboxylesterase, DNase, hyaluronidase, metalloprotease, phospholipase, serine protease and tachykinin. Serine proteases were responsible for 70.9% and 86.3% of putative toxin expression in H. maculosa and O. kaurna respectively as determined using intensity based absolute quantification (iBAQ) measurements. Phylogenetic analysis of the putative toxin serine proteases revealed a similar suite of diverse proteins present in both species. Posterior salivary gland composition of H. maculosa and O. kaurna differ in several key aspects. While O. kaurna expressed the proteinaceous neurotoxin, tachykinin, this was absent from H. maculosa, perhaps reflecting the acquisition of a potent non-proteinaceous neurotoxin, tetrodotoxin (TTX) produced by bacteria in the salivary glands of that species. The dispersal factor, hyaluronidase was particularly abundant in H. maculosa. Chitinase was abundant in both species and is believed to facilitate envenomation in chitinous prey such as crustaceans. Cephalopods represent a largely unexplored source of novel proteins distinct from all other venomous taxa and are of interest for further inquiry as novel proteinaceous toxins derived from venoms may contribute to pharmaceutical design.
 

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